Vertebrate Success in the Urban Environment

Vertebrate Success in the Urban Environment Dr Giles Johnson Lay Abstract Despite urban expansion causing an overall decrease in the number and variety of animals that inhabit a given area, some vertebrate species have made a success of urban living. Using the red fox, the Norway rat, the rock dove, and the peregrine falcon as case studies, this review analyses the resources and features that allow these animals to thrive in human settlements; and in turn how living in such environments affects them. The literature provides evidence of the ample food that urban centres provide for vertebrates, primarily in the form of waste. In the case of the peregrine falcon, the arrival of the pigeon has provided a source of prey. The living requirements of each species differed due to differences in size, reproductive behaviour and the ability to fly. Living in urban environments has dramatic effects on these species; changes in social behaviour and reproduction contribute to more efficient exploitation of the resources available. We argue that a flexible strategy in t erms of behaviour and diet is fundamental to urban success in vertebrates. Knowledge in this area may provide the means to better control populations, curbing the spread of pest species and encouraging desirable species into urban centres. Scientific Abstract Despite the homogenising effect of urban expansion on species richness some vertebrates have successfully colonised the urban niche. Using Vulpes vulpes, Rattus norgevicus, Columba livia, and Falco peregrinus as case studies, this review analyses the resources available to these species and in the strategies employed to better exploit them. Urban centres provide ample food for vertebrates primarily in the form of human waste. In the case of F.peregrinus the establishment of colonies of C.livia provides a constant prey source encouraging expansion into urban centres; providing an example of secondary succession. Differences in size and behaviour as well as terrestrial and aerial lifestyles result in different living requirements and thus preference in urban density. Living in urban environments also exerts pressures on these species. Spatio-temporal changes in resources specifically result in changes in social behaviour as well as reproductive behaviour and physiology as an adaptive r esponse. We argue that plasticity in response to diet, behaviour and physiology are fundamental to urban vertebrate success. We suggest further research into whether such responses are genotypic or phenotypic. Better understanding of such phenomena may provide humans with better means to manage urban ecology. Introduction A 2014 report on urbanisation by the UN found 54% of the global population lived in urban centres at the time, meaning for the first time in human history more people live in urban than rural environments. This figure compares to 30% in 1950 with a projection to reach 66% by 2050. These trends are encouraged by both migration and an expected rise in the population from 7.2 billion to 9.6 billion by 2050 (UN, 2014). Despite urbanisation being attributed to threatening 8% of terrestrial species (Mcdonald et al., 2008) and having a homogenising effect on biodiversity (Clergeau et al., 2006), Angold et al. (2006) state that wildlife can indeed prosper in the urban environment. Although, Mckinney et al. (2006) correctly point out that some urban adaptable species tend to dominate the urban niche and spread globally resulting in biotic homogenisation. This review is concerned with vertebrate species that dominate the urban environment; assessing both the causes of such success and observin g the effects that urban life has upon these species. The introduction will define urbanisation and address both the potential negative and positive effects on overall biodiversity and on individual species. The body of this review will use two mammal and two bird species as case studies focusing on food, shelter, group behaviour, and reproduction as indicators of how species exploit the urban niche, and how in turn urban life can cause changes in these species. Jones and Leather (2012) define an urban area as a human settlement with a population greater than 10,000, characterised by a mosaic of land uses including residential, commercial, industrial and infrastructural with occasional green spaces. Moller et al. (2009) define urbanisation as the conversion of natural habitats into areas partly covered by buildings, heavily fragmented and with a high level of edge effects. Bateman and Fleming (2012) argue that urbanisation is difficult to define and will not only vary from region to region, but also exists on a scale with cities offering the most extreme of disturbed anthropogenic altered environments, through to towns and villages as well as infrastructure and parkland. It is often difficult to quantify the direct impact of urbanisation on an ecosystem due to urban centres usually predating modern ecological analysis, but, although caution should be taken with estimation, studies that compare urban systems to undisturbed natural ecosystems can provide some insight. One such study by Brook et al. (2003) assessed the impact that potential habitat loss in Singapore had on local biodiversity since the British colonised the region in 1819. The analysis combined historic documentation on land clearance and development with evidence of recent extinctions in the area. They calculated that 95% of the rainforest habitat had been cleared, estimating that the figure for overall biodiversity loss could be at minimum 28% with a vertebrate extinction rate between 34-43%. They further highlight the bleak outlook for wildlife in the region with 77% of local wildlife currently threatened. A recent study by Newbold et al. (2015) analysed the impact of land use on loca l biodiversity. The findings suggest that local richness, rarefied richness and abundance decrease as the intensity of human interference and population density increases, attributes all associated with urbanisation. These analyses draw attention to the impact that habitat loss caused through urban development can have on animal biodiversity. Destruction of habitat can also cause habitat fragmentation; the process of a habitat breaking apart and becoming increasingly isolated (Fahrig, 2003). Haddad et al. (2015) analysed data collected from over 35 years from several biomes globally and various fragment sizes. They found that fragmentation reduced biodiversity by between 13-70% with the effect greatest on the smallest and oldest fragments. The size and scale of this study provides strong evidence for such effects. Fragmentation can also exert genetic effects on a population by creating barriers through which genetic information cannot easily flow (Templeton et al., 1990). The smaller and more genetically isolated these populations are the greater likelihood the population will go extinct (Slatkin, 1977). Behavioural and morphological effects have also been observed in fragmented populations. The work of Hill et al. (1999) on the butterfly Hesperia comma in the South Downs found that individuals residing in more isolated f ragments tended to invest in larger flight muscles; a trait associated with increased dispersal distances, whereas individuals in less fragmented habitats tended to invest less in flight muscles and more in larger reproductive organs. Despite the negative impact on biodiversity there are opportunities in the urban ecosystem for animals that can take advantage. Anthropogenic food sources in the form of refuse (Gardner-Santana et al., 2009), spillage (Murton, 1972), and cultural feeding practices (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990) all provide ample food supply for urban populations. Although buildings and infrastructure can cause fragmentation and mortality risk (Bateman and Fleming, 2012), the patchwork mosaic of commercial, residential and green spaces provides a variety of potential homes for animals (Angold et al., 2006). Once initial colonisation has taken place, the dramatic reduction in competition and abundance of resources allows a niche shift, contributing to a rapid establishment (Diamond, 1970). Despite the potential benefits, urban environments are still one of the most challenging for animals to live in due to the high level and wide range of anthropogenic disturbances; mostly in the form of development a nd traffic (Bateman and Fleming, 2012). This review will make the case that in this shifting environment a high level of behavioural, physiological and morphological plasticity contributes greatly to a species success. The four case studies were selected with three criteria in mind. First a sufficient body of literature to allow for detailed comparison. Second to provide insight into the effects urbanisation has on urban vertebrates. Third species were selected that offer specific challenges to society such as pest or endangeredÂÂ   species. The four vertebrate case studies analysed in this paper are the red fox, Vulpes vulpes; the Norway rat, Rattus norgevicus; the urban pigeon or rock dove, Columba livia; and the peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus. V.vulpes was selected due to the the well documented comparison between both its urban and rural ecology and behaviour. C.livia is another well studied urban species with a long urban history; originally being kept as a source of protein throughout the middle ages (Murton et al., 1972). The ecology R.norgevicus is less well studied. This is surprising as it isone of the most ecologically destructive vertebrates (Higgins et al., 2015), regarded amo ng the most numerous and pervasive of urban pests (Feng et al., 2012), and known to harbour many zoonotic pathogens (Himsowrth et al., 2013) making it an important topic for study. C.livia also presents similar problems, befouling public spaces through defecation, the fine particles of which are loaded with zoonotic pathogens creating a risk to public health (Hetmanski et al., 2010). F.peregrinus Is a particularly interesting case of an urban success story as they also represent one of the great conservation management success stories of the last century. In the Midwest it now exclusively resides in urban centres where it was extirpated following the population crash during the 50s and 60s (Caballero, 2016). Understanding what makes these species successful could potentially help with population control of dangerous pest species such as the Norway rat and the pigeon. Understanding the factors that contribute to these species success may also allow us to build environments that encourage desirable animals, such as the peregrine and the fox, as well as creating opportunities for less successful species.This review will analyse the traits that allow successful vertebrates to exploit the anthropogenic resources available, primarily in the form of food and shelter. It will also cover the behavioural and reproductive effects that the urban environment exerts upon these groups. Resources: Food Contesse et al. (2004) found that 85% of households in Zurich had anthropogenic food accessible to foxes. There is a vast array of literature that supports the claim that V.vulpes exploits such sources. Doncaster and Macdonald (1990) analysed the diet of the fox population in Oxford finding that a majority of 37% of the average annual food intake was scavenged, a result reflected by Contesse et al. (2004) in the city of Zurich where it reached 50%. Interestingly, in both studies this figure fluctuates in response to seasonal variation. Doncaster and Macdonald (1990) found scavenging was highest during the winter when other food sources were lower, and lowest during the late summer/autumn when seasonal fruits were abundant. This flexibility in diet is reflected in studies of V.vulpes in rural environments. One study in southern England found two thirds of the diet comprised of game, withÂÂ   mostly rodents and fruit making up the remainder (Reynolds and Tapper, 1995). Whilst anot her found that for foxes inhabiting mountainous regions in the Czech Republic rodents made up the majority, supported by varying quantities of beetles, ungulates, plant matter and fruit depending on the season (Hartova-Nentichova et al., 2010). In the urban context Contesse et al. (2004) note that the more extreme urban environments, such as the city centre, were associated with increased levels of dietary scavenge. Baker and Harris (2007) suggest opportunistic feeding a factor in the successful colonisation of the urban niche and these studies support such a claim. Pickett et al. (2001) propose that the increased quantity and continuous source of food in the form of human food waste as well as the cultural practice of feeding urban wildlife has a positive impact on the fox population. Further to this, Contesse et al. (2004) calculated that the surplus of refuse removed food as a limiting factor for the fox population in Zurich which has resulted in a large and increasing population . Unlike the Zurich fox population food is usually determines carrying capacity for urban rat populations (Higgins et al., 2015). This is possibly due to the varying lengths of time these populations have been established. V.vulpes colonised the UK in the 1930s (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990) and Zurich in the 1980s (Contesse et al., 2004) whilst the commensal rat population has potentially lived alongside humans for thousands of years (Feng et al, 2014). An opportunistic generalist, R.norgevicus occupies urban centres and feeds primarily on refuse (Gardner-Santana et al, 2009). Schein and Orgain (1953) calculated that one third of anthropogenic refuse is a suitable food source for rats providing a constantly replenishing food source in urban areas. The Norway rat is so well adapted to urban life that it is rarely found in the wild, suggesting they require humans to survive (Feng and Himsworth, 2014). Although dietary flexibility has contributed to the colonisation of the urban niche t he suggestion that this species are now completely dependent upon it for survival might imply a lack of flexibility once established. A comparative study by Murton and Westwood (1966) found the rural population of C.livia nesting on the cliffs at Farnborough head fed on a variety of grains, legumes weed seeds and some small invertebrates; the ratios of which fluctuated in response to the agricultural season. The diet of the population in Leeds consisted primarily of bread but also fruit cake and commercial seed mix provided by the public. However, much of the produce found in the rural population was also present in the urban population. Murton and Westwood (1966) attributed this to the public but a study by Rose et al. (2006) provides further insight. The study analysed the spatio-temporal use of the urban habitat of C.livia in the city of Basel. They found that there were three different foraging strategies employed: 1) in the streets, squares and parks near the home site 2) In agricultural areas surrounding the city 3) on docks and railway lines in the harbour. Most individuals stayed within 0.3km of their nesti ng site in the city with only 7.5% of the population flying to the agricultural and dock sites which were over 2km away. It was found that these foraging strategies were only employed in conjunction with foraging near the home site suggesting they were secondary strategies when access to local sources was restricted. Evidence that urban pigeons employ a flexible foraging strategy. Ali et al. (2013) suggests that the worldwide urban pigeon population has boomed due to the continuous supply of anthropogenic food compared to seasonal fluctuations in rural environments. Interestingly, this population boom has potentially aided the colonisation of the urban niche and the recovery of the peregrine falcon. A study by Drewitt and Dixon (2008) analysed the diet of peregrines in three British cities: Bristol, Bath and Exeter. They found that pigeons and other doves comprised 47% of the peregrine diet making up the majority of the peregrine diet; reflecting figures from a study in Warsaw 32% (Rejt, 2001). Both studies observed seasonal fluctuations in the proportion of pigeon taken. Drewitt and Dixon (2008) noted that during the starling breeding season juveniles can make up 19% of the peregrine diet, whilst Rejt (2001) recorded a drop to 10-19% of pigeon in the diet during the migration season and exceeding 50% over the harsher winter months. It is thought that the coun tershading present on migrating birds which is beneficial in natural light is maladaptive in the artificial glare of the city lights allowing the peregrines to take advantage (Ruxton et al., 2004). TheseÂÂ   studies provide evidence for a flexible, opportunistic feeding strategy. Interestingly from an ecological perspective, the urban pigeon forming the base prey for urban peregrines (Cade and Bird, 1990) suggests secondary succession occurring in the urban environment; with the pioneer species C.livia allowing the establishment of F.peregrinus. These four case studies not only highlight the variety of food sources available to urban species but also provide insight in the type of feeding strategy enables species to exploit this niche. Although diet and preference might vary, a generalist opportunistic approach strategy is favoured, suited to the often constant but highly varied anthropogenic food types available. Resources: Places to Live Throughout the year V.vulpes rest in lays, structures that provide the fox with shelter, situationally (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990). However, during the breeding season red foxes require open ground to construct breeding dens, due to this they prefer less dense residential areas where open ground provides suitable sites (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990). In comparison the requirements of R.norgevicus are minimal, being smaller in size and less particular in regards to breeding sites. All that is needed is adequate harborage and a nearby food source, typically refuse (Gardner et al., 1948). Rats will burrow in soil, use abandoned structures, and even climb buildings and make nests from anthropogenic materials (Gardner et al., 1948). As a result rats thrive in run down neighbourhoods where there are more abandoned and neglected properties that provide harbourage (Himsworth et al., 2013). Although these two species require both refuge and food, differences in size and breeding behaviou r results in different requirements. As a consequence the fox faces greater restriction. Although birds face similar problems the spatial differences in habitat mean birds are less affected by fragmentation (Fahrig, 2003). A study by Ali et al., (2013) on the ecology of C.livia in Islamabad found pigeons to be present on bridges, tall buildings, as well as in semi urban spaces such as parks and gardens. Interestingly, population density increased around urban centres and decreased around semi-urban spaces showing a clear bias to extreme urban environments. The human environment also provides suitable nesting sites for F.peregrinus, with urban peregrines roosting on the tallest buildings in an urban space (Cade and Bird, 1990). It could be suggested that tall man-made structures such as skyscrapers mimic the cliff side habitat of these species allowing successful colonisation to occur. Effects: Range and Group Behaviour The urban environment is characterised by high level of disturbance. Construction, demolition and changes in human population all contribute to fluctuations in the spatial distribution of resources (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1990). In response to this we see high levels of plasticity in fox social behaviour (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1991; Baker et al., 1998). The home range of urban foxes is dramatically reduced usually extending for less than 100ha (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1991), whilst in rural individuals it can exceed 2000ha (Contesse et al., 2004). This is associated with increased resources over a smaller area which also results in increased population density (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1991). Interestingly, this has implications for the social behaviour of urban foxes. Red foxes are usually solitary animals that form pairs during the breeding season, but in urban settings live in groups of three to five (Doncaster and Macdonald, 1991). This is best explained by the spatio-tempo ral variation in the availability of resources in the anthropogenic environment which impacts both individual benefit and defence costs potentially leading to group formation (Doncaster and Macdonald, (1991); Baker et al., (1998). The spatial distribution of resources in towns and cities is such that with only two members the perimeter cannot be fully defended whilst the amount of resources within a territory are often abundant enough to promote group formation (Donacaster and Macdonald, 1991). These changes in social structure show high levels of behavioural plasticity which has potentially aided the expansion of the red fox into the urban niche. There are interesting parallels to draw between urban rat and fox populations, particularly in relation to range and social behaviour. The home range of urban rats is typically small; consisting of narrow strips between the animals harbourage and its food supply (Davis, 1953). Gardner-Santana et al. (2009) proposed that the range of urban rats is much smaller in urban environments, ranging from 25-150m (Davis, 1953), compared to those of rats in rural environments, which range from 260-2000m (Taylor and Quy, 1978). Feng et al. (2014) suggest that range is dependent on the availability of suitable harborage and food sources as well as pressure from conspecifics. This is comparable to the reduction in fox range which was attributed to a high density of anthropogenic resources in the urban environment. Like the red fox, urban rats also exist in larger colonies than their rural counterparts although, unlike foxes, they lack co-operative behaviour (Feng et al., 2014). In fact, the increas ed population density and fierce competition often results in increased levels of aggression (Feng et al., 2014). There is also evidence that spatio-temporal distribution of resources affects group size and behaviour in C.livia. Murton et al. (1972) noted that the flock size of C.livia was directly related to the quantity of daily food spillage, unlike in the closely related wood pigeon, C.palambus, where seasonal food supply dictates flock size. Murton also observed that pigeonsociety exists in hierarchical structure with some birds occupying the centre of the flock and having preferential access to the best feeding spots. Despite differences in social structure, the changes in range and group living in the fox, rat and pigeon offer insight into the effects that urban living can exert upon the behaviour of species. It could be suggested that the plastic nature of these behaviours has contributed to the success of these animals in the urban niche. Questioning whether such effects stem from the environment working on established plasticity within the genotype or whether such changes are the resul t of natural selection would provide an interesting topic for further study. Effects: Reproduction and Population Due to their high fecundity, even in urban environments with an abundant resources, food usually determines the carrying capacity of the urban rat population. A sexually mature female can produce five litters per year with 4-8 pups per litter (Margulis, 1977). The work of Ziporyn and McClintock (1991) noted that females living in groups often establish oestrus in synchrony, observing that when this occurred 80% of pups would survive compared to asynchronous breeders. These co-ordinated events result in population booms (ibid) which maintains the numerous population. Glass and Herbert (1988) also noted that urban rats grow faster and reach sexual maturity sooner than their rural counterparts, suggesting the abundance of anthropogenic resources as a cause. Understanding when these booms occur could help humans better control urban rat populations. The effect of increased resources on rats draws parallels with the population dynamics of C.livia. Hetmanski et al. (2010) found that the size of a pigeon population in an urban environment was linked not only to the size of the urban environment but also with the density of the human population, suggesting a correlation with increased anthropogenic resources. Murton et al. (1972) noted that due to the copious food supply there is little migration resulting in nest sites remaining occupied all year and rarely becoming available. This change in behaviour meant that two thirds of the pigeon population failed to breed potentially decreasing the effective population size. Further to this, there is evidence that males carry an allele that lengthens the breeding season and increases fertility (Murton et al., 1973) suggesting there is a selective advantage for remaining sexually active for longer. Changes in reproductive strategy in urban F.peregrinus have been attributed to the speed of its recovery since the population crash in the 50s/60s. A study by Kauffman et al. (2003) compared the survival rate of rural and urban peregrines in California. During the first year it was found that urban young had a 65% chance of survival compared to 28% in rural individuals. Caballero et al. (2016) also found that the urban clutch size tends to be larger, with an average clutch size reaching 4-5 in urban environments compared to 3 in rural. This effect has resulted in a population boom with populations in the UK and Germany already exceeding pre-crash levels (Rejt, 2001) Although the mechanisms differ, there is a clear pattern for increased fecundity in urban populations of these species contributing to their success. Conclusions The case studies discussed provide evidence of the opportunities available to vertebrates with the means to take advantage of them. Despite different needs, the human habitat offers ample shelter for vertebrates, with rats and foxes occupying spaces determined by their size and behaviour whilst man-made structures mimicking the natural habitat of peregrines and pigeons offer nesting sites. Anthropogenic waste and cultural practice supplies foxes, rats and pigeons with an abundant food supply that, although fluctuates spatio-temporally in relation to human rhythms, does not suffer the same seasonal fluctuations which characterise the rural environment. This combines with the opportunistic generalist nature that characterises these species allowing them to take advantage of such resources. Consequentially, there are marked changes in behaviour with determined by the change in urban resource distribution. This has resulted in increased group size and co-operation in V.vulpes; alteration in flock size relating to daily opposed to seasonal resource fluctuations in C.livia; and larger more aggressive colonies of R.norgevicus. Peregrines also benefit from a constant food supply in the form of the anthopogenically supported pigeon population; an example of secondary succession of the urban environment. They exhibit opportunistic behaviour in both the species they hunt and their potential use of skyscrapers as hunting aids. The argument for a degree of behavioural plasticity allowing these species to take better advantage of such resources is well supported but questions are still to be answered on whether such changes are a result of natural selection or are phenotypic responses to changes in environment. Similar questions also arise when considering the effects the urban environment has on reproduction. Although the mechanisms differ, we see a pattern of increased fecundity across the case studies. Increase in fledgeling success in F.peregrinus is easily explained by ecological factors, but the change in peregrine clutch size and the increased growth and approach to sexual maturity in R.norgevicus are less easily determined. The identification of an allele in C.livia that extends the breeding season suggests a genetic cause in this instance. However, each case should be considered independently and these situations open up a multitude of questions in relation to whether cases of behavioural and physiological plasticity is related to the genotype or phenotype of an organism. There are surprising gaps in the literature and areas that appear to be poorly replicated. Reviews on urban rats comment on the lack of ecological understanding of R.norgevicus. From a utilitarian perspective this is counterintuitive considering the risk it poses ecologically, economically, and to public health. Conversely, the literature on urban foxes is both extensive and varied, perhaps denoting the popularity of this animal in the public mind. From a practical perspective this information is perhaps less useful although the cultural impact of urban wildlife should not be dismissed or undervalued. The projected increase of urbanisation highlights the importance of understanding both the traits of successful species and qualities of the environment that encourage vertebrate success. Such information can provide us with the means to better manage urban populations. In regards to pest species this could aid efforts to control and minimise their success, whilst better planning could attract not only current successful species but also edge species into the urban environment. References Ali, S., Rakha, B., Hussain, I., Nadeem, M. Rafique, M. (2013). Ecology of Feral Pigeon (Columba livia) in Urban Areas of Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 45(5), 1229-1234. Angold, P., Sadler, J., Hill, M., Pullin, A., Rushton, S., Austin, K., Small, E., Wood, B., Wadsworth, R., Sanderson, R. Thompson, K. (2006). Biodiversity in urban habitat patches. Science of the Total Environment, 360(1-3), 196-204. Baker, P. Harris, S. (2007). Urban mammals: what does the future hold? An analysis of the factors affecting patterns of use of residential gardens in Great Britain. Mammal Review, 37(4), 297-315. Baker, P., Robertson, C., Funk, S. Harris, S. (1998). Potential fitness benefits of group living in the red fox, Vulpes vulpes. Animal Behaviour, 56, 1411-1424. Bateman, P. Fleming, P. (2012). Big city life: carnivores in urban environments. Journal of Zoology, 287(1), 1-23. Brook, B., Sodhi, N. Ng, P. (2003). Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature, 424(6947), 420-423. Caballero, I., Bates, J., Hennen, M. Ashley, M. (2016). Sex in the City: Breeding Behaviour of Urban Peregrine Falcons in the Midwestern US. Plos One, 11(7). Cade, T. BIird, D. (1990). Peregrine falcons, Falco peregrinus, nesting in the urban environment a review. Canadian Field-Naturalist, 104(2), 209-218. Clergeau, P., Croci, S., Jokimaki, J., Kaisanlahti-Jokimaki, M. Dinetti, M. (2006). Avifauna homogenisation by urbanisation: Analysis at different European latitudes. Biological Conservation, 127(3), 336-344. Contesse, P., Hegglin, D., Gloor, S., Bontadina, F. Deplazes, P. (2004). The diet of urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and the availability of anthropogenic food in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. Mammalian Biology, 69(2), 81-95. Davis, D. (1953). The

Of Mice And Men: Burdens Of Responsibility :: essays research papers

Of Mice and Men: Burdens of Responsibility "OF MICE AND MEN IS A NOVEL WHICH EXPLORES THE BURDENS OF RESPONSIBILITY AS MUCH AS ITS REWARDS." By evaluating the novel of mice and men carefully I have found that every character in the novel has a facet of life that consists of burdens and responsibilities. The characters in the novel basically have three options in which they can live their lives. They can knuckle down, work hard, keep a positive frame of mind and try earnestly to improve their standard of living. An example of this is would be George Milton and Lennie Small. The other option is to walk around with a chip on their shoulder, not bother to improve oneself but eradicate those around him or her that serve as a frustration or nuisance. An ideal example of this would be Curley when he decides to target Lennie as a'frustration' and subsequently attacks him with no real valid reason apart from jealousy and spite. The last option concerns Candy and Crooks to an extent. They live a fairly meaningless life void of love and affection. They have few friendships and cling to anyone who shows them sincere attention. An example of this is when Lennie has a conversation with Crooks and he expresses his feelings of loneliness. Another example is when Carlson shoots Candy's dog. Candy becomes very eager to attach himself to George and lennie and purchase a house with them as a result of the loss of his only real love in his life. The responsibilities of aspiration and hope play a major role in the structure of George, Lennie and Curley's wife's character. To an extent their aspirations protect them from reality for short stints and acts like a recharge to their motivational batteries. This is a good thing more often than not. Examples of these instances are when Lennie and George are sitting on the bank of a pool of the Salinas river in the last chapter. George is in the process of telling Lennie how together they are "gonna get a little place." He does this because he knows it makes Lennie happy and he wants Lennie's last thoughts to be of his ideal world not terror. George then shoots Lennie in the back of the head doing whats best for everyone, and Lennie dies in a state of utopia, his reward. An example of Curley's wife's hopes is when she finally finds a person around the ranch who sees her not as an object of lust but someone to talk to. This person

Religious Dissent, Discord, Settlement and Religious Essay

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Characteristics Of Beowulf - 861 Words

The poem Beowulf is a story that was passed down vocally, through generations, before a monk recorded the story in Old English. The story tells a journey of a young warrior, Beowulf, who is constantly faced with the task of defeating evil in order to pursue harmony throughout the land of Herot. As time progressed, english historians have declared that Beowulf can be considered and epic hero. An epic hero is a person who holds both bravery and nobility based on the actions that are accomplished. He or she is a character who holds specific characteristics above the rest of the society, as if they are the leader or role model that the community values all together. In order to be considered an â€Å"epic hero† one must hold specific requirements:†¦show more content†¦Beowulf’s first struggle was against Grendel, a monster who would not be damaged by the impact of weapons. Despite the weakness, Beowulf was able to overcome the demon with his pure strength. The town speople were saved and the â€Å"old and young rejoiced, turned back from that happy pilgrimage, mounted their hard-hooved horses, high spirited stallions, and rode them slowly towards Herot again, retelling Beowulf’s bravery as they jogged along† (375-379). In short, this explains that Beowulf’s success in battle translates into the success of the town and the safety of its people. In his battle with Grendel’s mother, he discovered she was much stronger than her son was, however, he knew he could not give in. She was described as ferocious and strong, no match could stand before her. The story reads, â€Å"She’d taken Hrothgar’s closest friend, / The man he most loved of all men on earth; / She’d killed a glorious soldier, cut / A noble life short† (414-417). If Beowulf had not been able to defeat the beast, she would have stole away to the city and destroyed everyone and everything; the destruction she would have caused would have been endless. Beowulf has many superhuman traits that separate him from normal humans. He fought both Grendel and his mother with his bare hands and strength. The story reads, â€Å"IfShow MoreRelatedCharacteristics Of Beowulf936 Words   |  4 Pagesand war. Often times the epics and traditional stories passed down are centered around battles where the hero represents strong leadership characteristics. The story of Beowulf was commonly used as a story to teach upcoming leaders powerful ways to lead. Common traits are shown in the story illustration common themes for leadership. Throughout the epic of Beowulf, an element of Anglo-Saxon culture is represented in the virtues of humility through actions, loyalty in the fighting, and the Code of ComitatusRead MoreCharacteristics Of Beowulf710 Words   |  3 PagesBeowulf, the Game: The Traits of Beowulf and his Heroic Demise. I chose to create a board game based on the Old English Poem, Beowulf, because through creating the event cards, I was able to analyze the characteristics of Beowulf which led him towards his valiant death. This was achieved by associating the moving figures (players) with a specific trait that Beowulf embodies throughout the poem; each trait was assigned a color which represents the characteristic connected to it in order to differentiateRead MoreBeowulf Characteristics895 Words   |  4 PagesBeowulf could, more than easily, be described as a typical Anglo-Saxon hero. More likely he would be the model of one. The story of his life was a staple in the Anglo-Saxon society. There are three distinct traits that make up the Anglo-Saxon hero. Those three traits would be Larger Than Life Strength, Loyalty to lord/Lord and Bravery. There has only been one hero in Anglo-Saxon history, only one man can meet every requirement one needs to be classified as a hero. Only one man’s stren gth, selflessnessRead MoreCharacteristics Of Beowulf1100 Words   |  5 Pagessociety. In the days of Beowulf and the Vikings, a hero was a man who was strong, courageous, and willing to protect his land and provide for his people. In today’s world, a hero is someone who is known for their selflessness and bravery. Beowulf is described as an epic hero before he even speaks a word in the story. He is described as mightiest man on earth, the noble warrior, and the man whose name was known for courage, the Great leader. These opening quotes about Beowulf alone make it seem likeRead MoreCharacteristics Of Beowulf1577 Words   |  7 Pagesmaintain such qualities, they can either use their talents for personal gains or use the extraordinary features for the well-being of others. A prime example of an epic hero who convey these attributes is a character named Beowulf. While progressing through his journey, Beowulf demonstrates a great sense of devotion to his people and their welf are through his level of loyalty. Additionally, his actions dealing with his superior strength are all taken on a basis to benefit and help his people. LastlyRead MoreWhat Are The Characteristics Of Beowulf1458 Words   |  6 PagesOctober 2017 Beowulf Have you ever thought of being so strong that you have the ability to fight with a dragon and kill it? Beowulf, an epic written in England by an anonymous writer that tells how this powerful and fearless human being that fights monsters and dinosaurs with his bare hands and sometimes with weapons. An Epic is a long narrative poem, sometimes developed orally, that celebrates heroic deeds and legendary events (Wiggins 39). This epic generally describes about how Beowulf was a greatRead MoreThe Characteristics Of The Epic Of Beowulf964 Words   |  4 Pages The story of Beowulf is one of the worlds most important poetic works. The manuscript of the work in its entirety is dated as far back as the year 1000, but the poem itself dates back much farther in oral form (107). Beowulf is an Old English poem displaying characteristics of medieval English culture, particularly on â€Å"its ability to integrate pagan Germanic history within the framework of the Christian Middle Ages† (107 ). The story is set in the sixth century, and at this time it was the beginningRead MoreThe Characteristics Of Heroism In Beowulf857 Words   |  4 PagesHeroism Essay What really defines a hero? Beowulf has been known as one of the greatest heroes in Anglo Saxon history: Strong, brave, and a great leader who will lay his life down for his people. Heroes now, show many of the same qualities, but can come in many different shapes and sizes, some even in the shape of a kitchen sponge. Beowulf’s stories depict epic quests across new and foreign lands. He goes on these quest either to keep his people safe from monster, or earn fame and glory throughoutRead MoreBeowulf : Characteristics Of An Epic Hero978 Words   |  4 PagesAhissa Rice Mrs. Scheel 2Y English 12 20/11/17 Beowulf: Characteristics of an Epic Hero In Anglo-Saxon literature and culture, to be considered a hero was to also be considered a warrior/ soldier. To be a hero, you had to not only be strong but you also had to be smart, and have plenty of courage. These warriors were willing to face any type of trials and tribulations at any odd. These types of heroic warriors would fight to the death to obtain glory and save their people. The Anglo-Saxon hero neededRead MoreThe Characteristics Of My Dad And Beowulf730 Words   |  3 PagesMy Dad and Beowulf How do average people stack up against an epic hero? An epic hero possesses key traits such as courage, bravery, selflessness, humility, patience, and caring. Does someone we look up to also possess many of the same traits? Jamie Smith is a person to compare to an epic hero, in this case the hero being Beowulf. Characteristics of the epic hero Beowulf, include his caring, bravery, and other traits will be compared to Jamie Smith and how he ranks up against Beowulf. First of all

The Invention Of Sexuality As A Social Construct - 955 Words

Since the invention of sexuality as a social construct, there has been the invention of heterosexual versus the other – with the other being anything beyond opposite-sex attraction. This otherness creates discrimination and hatred, thus reinforcing a normal versus abnormal feeling within people. In 2013, 42% of Americans confessed that they believed that being gay or lesbian was a choice, and that choice was to live an abnormal lifestyle (Masci, Americans Are Still Divided on Why People Are Gay). Abnormalities regarding sexuality – whether a choice or not – reinforce compulsory heterosexuality because people do not want to be seen as different, or abnormal. Compulsory heterosexuality is a problem within society because it reinforces a viewpoint that homosexuality is abnormal and therefore, wrong. The act of believing that everyone that one meets is straight unless proven otherwise is known as compulsory heterosexuality. It is the result of â€Å"a social system where all person[s] are assumed to be heterosexual and gender differences are taken for granted as natural† and those who do not fit into these norms are labeled as â€Å"sexually deviant† (390). Believing that everyone is heterosexual, or attracted to the opposite sex only, reinforces the idea that anything other than straight is unacceptable and wrong. It feeds into how children are raised and what toys they are allowed to play with and parents reinforce heterosexuality by promoting motherhood and classically feminineShow MoreRelatedScientific Illiteracy/Misinformation, Or The Depletion1293 Words   |  6 PagesStates faced its own issue with private and state-sponsored media and the invention and integration of a new pill that would change the way people looked at women: birth control. The feminist movement brought this issue to the forefront of the media, claiming the pill would empower women to take control of their bodies and become more forward thinking about s exuality in general. The PBS study The Pill, which discusses the social scope of the birth control pill, illustrates how the media erupted afterRead MoreHomophobia Hurts Everyone By Warren J. Blumfeld1078 Words   |  5 Pages but I couldn’t imagine losing the people that I deal with everyday and who have loved me no matter what because I am in love with someone of the same sex. In â€Å"Naming All the Parts†, Bornstein (2014) discusses the relation of gender desire and sexuality. Being a male to female transsexual, she argues that gender is a socially constructed system of classification and it must be deconstructed and done away with completely. She also discusses the differences in sex and gender and gender roles. WhenRead More Laura Briggs Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico1734 Words   |  7 PagesRico as true Puerto Ricans, or to construct Puerto Rico as economically unconnected to the U.S. is a misconception, which has been historically employed to blame Puerto Rico for the U.S. subordination of it. Briggs records Puerto Ricos history as a model, testing site, or laboratory for U.S. colonial rule, centering on the ways in which this has functioned in relation to or through (control of) Puerto Rican working class women and family, sexuality and reproduction. Briggs utilizesRead MoreDeborah Whaley s Black Women1423 Words   |  6 PagesBlack female characters in mainstream comics, â€Å"comic book writers have used illustration of and ideologies about the Black female body to signify the fetish, fear, and fabrication of Africa† (p. 96). Further she debunks the white male inventions of â€Å"Blackness† and constructs an argument why sequential art is a feasible form of understanding visual narrative that reflect popular literature, identity politics, history, and cultural production from women of African descent. And, she offers theoretical frameworkRead MoreThe Big Black Smiling Mammy, The Sexual Deviant, And The Angry Sapphire Essay1487 Words   |  6 Pagesfema le characters in mainstream comics, â€Å"comic book writers have used illustrations of and ideologies about the Black female body to signify the fetish, fear, and fabrication of Africa† (p. 96). Further, she debunks the White male inventions of â€Å"Blackness† and constructs an argument why sequential art is a feasible form of understanding the visual narrative that reflects popular literature, identity politics, history, and cultural production from women of African descent. In addition, Whaley offersRead More Hegemonic Masculinity in American Society Essay1497 Words   |  6 Pagescontrol, speed, toughness, and dominion (Trujillo 23). In various spheres of life such as sports, and political leadership, using a male body as a symbol of power led to the creation of male dominance. However, towards the fall of the 20th century, this social consult came under immense challenge when women began to venture in politics and competing men in sports such as football and ath letics. Today, the American sporting scene is full of sports women partaking games that were initially reserved for menRead MoreHysteria, Not Only Oppressed Female Social Upliftment1566 Words   |  7 PagesDuring the 19th century, Hysteria, not only oppressed female social upliftment but it, led to a misconception of the sexual health of females. This misconception, as well as its unravelling was heavily influenced by the developments of Western medicine. The following essay will look at these developments, focusing on how the invention of the vibrator changed the perception of the female orgasm, sexual desire and pleasure. To begin with, the two-sex model and the influence of religious movements willRead MoreSex, Gender, And Gender936 Words   |  4 PagesFor the past few decades, feminists have been constantly debating the conventional views, of sex and gender in today’s society. As a result, we often think of sex as biological and gender as social, which are terms that are often used interchangeably and are socially or culturally constructed. In other words, the terms male and female are referred to as sex categories, while masculine and feminine are considered gender categories. 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To remove people from what Marx saw as the selfish and materialistic construct that was created by capitalism, re-education under a socialism would be the necessary to necessitate the change from capitalism to socialist society. Marx was a strong advocate for socialism and largely critical of capitalism. He believed that communism

John Updikes aP Sammys Growth - 1545 Words

John Updikes AP : Sammys Growth John Updikes story AP is about a nineteen year old boy, Sammy, who has a job at the local grocery store, the AP. Sammy works at the register in the store and is always observing the people who walk in and out each day. On this particular day that the story takes place, Sammy is caught off guard when a cluster of girls walk into the store wearing just their bathing suits. This caught Sammys attention because the nearest beach is five miles away and he could not figure out why they would still be in their suits. Sammy continues to overlook the girls in the store throughout their endeavor to pick up some items that they were sent in for. While they are wandering around the store Sammy watches the†¦show more content†¦Another part of Sammys expansion to mature comes when the store manager approaches the girls at the checkout. As Sammy stands behind the counter he notices Lengel, the store manager, approach the girls and exclaim to them Girls this isnt the beach (Updike 599 ). The girls stood there and explained why they were sent into the store, but none of there explaining seemed to appease Lengel. Lengel than stated, Thats all right, But this isnt the beach. His repeating this struck me as funny, as if it had just occurred to him, and he had been thinking all these years the AP was a great big dune and he was the head lifeguard. He didnt like my smiling-as I say, he doesnt miss much- but he concentrates on giving the girls that sad Sunday-school-superintendent stare( Updike 600). At this point of the story Sammy starts to notice that his manager thinks that it is ok to talk down to the girls and not treat them with any respect. The way Sammy saw the girls being treated really made him upset, and also made him realize that the way Lengel was treating them was no way to treat any person, especially a customer of a store. As Sammy continues to listen to what Lengel was saying to the girls he decided to open up his mouth and stand up for something he believed was right. He knew that there was no law saying they couldnt come in the store dressed inShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of John Updikes AP Essay1544 Words   |  7 PagesJohn Updikes story AP talks about a 19-year old lad, Sammy, who has a job at the local grocery store, the AP. Sammy works at the register in the store and is always observing the people who walk in and out each day. On this particular day that the story takes place, Sammy is caught off guard when a cluster of girls walk into the store wearing just their bathing suits. This caught Sammys attention because the nearest beach is five miles away and he could not figure out why they would still beRead MoreA P By John Updike1033 Words   |  5 PagesFurthermore, how we face these decisions will have an impact in our lives, and sometimes the ones that seem to be small are the most important ones. John Updike understood how making decision affects people’s life, and he develops it in his short story â€Å"A P,† which is the story of an unhappy boy who quits his job for a pretty girl. In order to develop this theme, John Updike takes Sammy, the main character of the story, through three different stages. In the beginning stage, Sammy is just a boy who is notRead MoreA Common Technique Used By John Updike926 Words   |  4 Pages A common technique used by authors throughout literature is the growth of the main character into their own. From the maturation of a selfish soul into a triumphant hero, or the rise of a shunned underdog into a loved champion, authors have create situations for their characters that teach readers a significant life lesson about the world we live in. For example, John Updike’s Sammy from AP and Flannery O’Connor’s Grandmother from A Good Man is Hard to Find both receive wake up calls from the respectiveRead MoreSymbolism in John Updikes A P1440 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Updikes short story A P recounts how an adolescent supermark et cashier named Sammy has his life changed forever when three girls in bathing suits shop in the store where he works. He is the first person narrator who shapes the tale with his descriptions, attitudes and opinions. He is the protagonist who grows up quickly in a single day and the only round, fully developed character in the tale. As you proceed through the story and become acquainted with Sammys opinions and ideas, it becomesRead MoreEssay on Personality in John Updikes AP1275 Words   |  6 Pagescharacter to make them stand out in a story.nbsp; In A amp; P by John Updike, Sammy starts off as a young man discontent with his ordinary adult surroundings and moves to his need to change it. Throughout the story, Sammy describes and interprets the scenes around him, consequently revealing his own character, by which can be related through the use of Thomas Chous Ennegram, to distinguish his personality type. nbsp; John Updike gives the reader an inside look into the adolescent mindRead MoreJohn Updike s A P And James Joyce s Araby1877 Words   |  8 PagesComing-of-age is a chapter that every individual must inevitably trek through in order to grow and mature into one’s own self. In John Updike’s AP and James Joyce’s Araby, the theme of growth permeates throughout both narratives as their respective protagonists fabricate an ideal world from their own naive perspectives, only to shed their ignorant fantasies about how they believe to understand that the world can bend to their decisions to truly understand the cruelty behind world they live in: reachingRead MoreEssay about Compare aP and Greasy Lake1108 Words   |  5 PagesJohn Updikes A P and T. Coraghessan Boyles Greasy Lake have many similarities as well as differences as coming-of-age stories. A P is about a nineteen-year-old boy working at a grocery shop who stands up against the manager trying to defend and imp ress the girls he is attracted to who are not decently dressed (Updike 18). Greasy Lake is a story of several nineteen years old youths who play a prank on a bad character and experience what real bad characters can do. Fortunately,Read MoreAP: Short Story 2828 Words   |  4 PagesA P â€Å"AP† written by John Updike is a short story about a young boy named Sammy. He was 19 years old and he was working at AP mini market. One day, there were three girls shopping at the store wearing bikinis, and Sammy was surprised yet adore these three girls, until one day he quitted his job because he wanted to be their hero, but unfortunately, the girls didn’t even see him. John Updike was trying to describe Sammy as a typical youth who is trying to get some attention. At the beginning

National Theatre Production Argumentative Essay Example For Students

National Theatre Production Argumentative Essay Discuss the ideas of Community and responsibility for our fellow humans in An Inspector Calls. How successfully does the National Theatre Production convey this idea?  We dont live alone. We are members of one body. We are responsible for each other. And I tell you that a time will soon come when if men will not learn that lesson then they will be taught it in fire and blood and anguish  Inspectors Final speech.  An Inspector Calls is as its name implies- a detective play with a twist. Written by John Boynton Priestely in 1945 after WW2, it is based in 1912 in the industrial city of Bromley in the North Midlands and is centred around the Birlings- a respectable upper middle class family who all in some way contributed to why Eva Smith- lower class girl, committed suicide- yet who shun their responsibility and then reap the consequences. We will write a custom essay on National Theatre Production Argumentative specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now In the years between 1912 and 1945, there were two huge world wars that had affected millions of lives. The casualties had been staggering and the destruction overwhelming and people were now beginning to ask why- why had all this happened- why had so much misery come about- who was responsible for it all?  Before the 1939, theatres had been extremely versatile in its styles and it had been a popular form of entertainment with the people to whom the theatre was a means to get away from the horrors of the war. Theatre was also greatly influenced by playwrights and authors. Brecht- a German director, poet and playwright of late 19th and early 20th century was incredibly famous for his plays in which he introduced moral/ social and political issues (social division, racial prejudices etc) and encouraged the audience to think about what the moral and situations of the story were so that they could thereby learn through them. Priestely believed very strongly in such matters and these he showed through what he wrote and thought- he was very politically minded and passionate in what he believed in, but was more of a social philosopher and liked to think of himself as such. He himself had fought in WW1 and had had close shaves with death on a number of occasions- and it was these unforgettable experiences which helped shape the direction of his writing. It was with these influences and his own personal beliefs of community and human socialism that Priestley wrote An Inspector Calls- characterising the Birlings and Gerald Croft as the standard middle class family of the time- the suicide of Eva Smith as the tragedy caused by their own mistakes (WW1) and the recurrence of the tragedy as what occurred when they did not learn from their previous errors (WW2).  The beginning of the play starts off relatively uneventful- a rich middleclass family extolling their appreciation of their daughter Sheila and Gerald Crofts (a rich young man) engagement. In Priestleys performance, this would have been a fairly calm tranquil scene- soft lighting and a relaxed atmosphere to contrast with the scene later on in which the Inspector appears. However in the modern National Theatre production, the opening has a much more symbolic and eye-opening effect. Instead of the stage simply being the interior of the Birlings house, the stage is set out much more widely- providing the whole of the house and some scene around it- mainly a dark lit street. Small but vital additions e.g. the cobbled streets and smoky gas lamps set the scene to 1912 and create a mystical and eerie atmosphere which with the sinister, discordant background music, promises the audience a worthwhile play. The Birlings house is the centrepiece of the stage- situated at the back right hand corner, is raised above the rest of the stage and through the windows, the figures and voices of the exuberant Birlings are clearly defined.  The houses separation from the rest of the stage symbolises the huge distinction between the classes of the period. While poorly dressed boys play hopscotch and kick stones around upon the street below, the richly clad Birlings toast each other with wine and brazenly exude their wealth. There is no sense of a closely knit community and the impression rather is of two magnets- they could be together and work in harmony but instead they are placed and choose to remain, back to back- repelling each other. .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 , .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .postImageUrl , .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 , .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89:hover , .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89:visited , .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89:active { border:0!important; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89:active , .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89 .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u142658f36b93353c6b2864b5cc0f7b89:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Cuba libre EssayIt is here Mr Birling paints the true portrait of himself to us the audience and shows that not only is he a rich swaggering man of high standing, but a selfish, arrogant and shrewd one too. He leaves the interior of the house and comes out into full view of the audience with Gerald Croft upon the balcony outside and proceeds to lecture him upon a mans duty- first and foremost to himself then as an after thought his family but then responsibility stops. But the way some of these cranks (Socialists) talk and write now, youd think everybody has to look after everybody else, as if were all mixed up together like bees in a hive- community and all that nonsense.  The idea of helping or aiding others, to him is preposterous- you can almost hear his sneering ridiculing tone- Gerald and his son Eric do nothing to correct him and instead are listening intently almost to the older man- taking in his words. From what he says, you begin to feel a certain disgust at this man who talks so fluently and certainty that the war which is to kill millions- is simply rumours and nothing more- And I say there isnt a chance of war.progress were makingautomobilesshipsTitanic sails next week- 46800 tonnes- every luxury- unsinkable- absolutely unsinkable  To the 1945 audience, these words would have had a great effect for Mr Birling was echoing what some of them were and had been before the whole world it seemed, crashed. His certainty and prideful ignorance would have touched some deeply the war had been brutal and painful as well as the loss of the unsinkable Titanic and all because they had not pulled down barriers and muffled their pride- it would have shattered any remaining doubts about Mr Birlings character being anything other then what I have described above and made him into a figure of ridicule as both of his emphatic statements in due course, turn out to be exactly the opposite.